Assignment 3

Languages as medium of instruction at Hue University, Vietnam

From a very "open conversation" (Blommaert & Jie. 2010: 39) with Ms. Dinh Thi Huong Giang (Master graduate from UPLB), who has been working for Hue Univerity since 2008 as a the lecturer of the Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism- Hue Univeristy- Vietnam on April 22, 2012, this research tries to explore:

What is the language as medium of instruction at Hue University?

1. How has the lecturer’ pedagogical practice been influenced by the language policy of Hue University?
2. How has the lecturer responded to the official policies in their own classrooms at Hue University? And
3. How can Hue University adjust their language policy to meet the demand of new education and training trends of Vietnam and of the world nowadays?

Based on my interaction with Ms. Huong Giang in our friendly dialogue, it can be inferred that Veitanmese language is curently used as the medium of instruction at Hue University. She however  has the two different kinds of medium of instruction: Vietnamese and English languages. It is one of the reasons why I choose her as my interlocutor. For her students major in Hospitality and Tourism, Vietnamese is the medium of instruction while English is used for the major Tourism and Leisure Management. It is an international bachelor program co-operated between Hue University and university of Applied Sciences Krems, Austria.

Based on her opinion, I realise that the Vietnamese language policy helps achieve her target teaching objectives on Vietnamese students because they seem not to have any language barriers in acquiring the lectures. In other words, they enjoy their lectures taught in Vietnamese language. It can be inferred that Vietnamese is a powerful tool to be used for teaching in Vietnam in general and at Hue University in particular. Or in terms of education, Vietnamese  is used in the first place.This official language is also a challenge for the lecturers because there are some terminologies which do not have their equipvalences in Vietnamese. So, the lectures have no choice in using English version. This leads to the isssue that students have to learn E.S.P (English for specific purposes) to support their major knowledge. From the perspective of a language policy researcher, I think this matter also has a good impact on the lecturers because they have to improve their English proficiency to serve their teaching objectives. Moreover, tourism is a kind of job that requires foreign languages especially English, as Ms. Giang’s reflection, the teacher should encourage her students to reach a certain English proficiency level to serve their future career.

Ms. Huong Giang also states that Hue University recently has some language policy adjustments to meet the education and training demands in the global and modern age under the impact of the spread of English. They have the bachelor degree coperated with Krems University so that their students have their international degree recognition. It means that the lecturers also have to reach a certain English proficiency to take charge in this training program. It seems that all of the lecturers who are incharge of this program have their doctoral or master degrees done abroad. At the same time, the students who apply for this major must have the certificate of  IELTS 5.5 before they graduate. Compared to other major students, they have higher English competence.Thus, English as language of instruction in the classroom is not a barrier to reach their target knowledge. Ms Giang, who is assigned to teach P.R (Public Relations), P.M (Project Management) and Economical Analysis, shows her experience in being aware of her students’ reaction in percieving her lectures. Based on their eye contacts, she can recognise if they can follow the lesson or not. In some special situations or complex problems that can not be well interpreted in English, she tends to shift into Vietnamese. With this flexible way of teaching, I think she is rather successful in “Krems program” as a lecturer because she knows how to choose the “appropriate norms in class” (Tupas. 2010: 577) although “the appropriate norms are not always the right ones and the right ones are not always appropriate.” (Tupas. 2010: 577)

Further more, the interview releases me that Hue University will deploy a trial program inwhich English is used as a medium of instruction of some majors as econimics, information and technology hopistiality and tourism, mathematics and physics in 2015. It can be infered that Hue Univerisity becomes developed, global, and modern in terms of language policy and training. Except for those who used to study abroad, I do not think that all of other teachers who give lectures on these majors are good at English. So, this  new 2015- language policy is really a chance and a challenge for them in their teaching life.  On the one hand, it is the chance for them not only to improve their English competence but to work in the new global and intergrated enviroment as well. On the other hand, if their English proficiency can not be improved they might lose their promotion or even lose their jobs.

In short, the Vietnamese language is the official language at Hue Univeristy while English is used as medium of instruction of some programs co-operated between Hue University and other foreign ones.  This policy can facilitate the lecturers to reach their students in knwoledge acquisition. They seem not to be in trouble with communication barriers in language as medium of instruction. The lecturers have many advantages in giving their lectures. In the new integrated enviroment, however, English which is the language of instruction is more challenged in the classrooms for both teachers and students. How to improve the English skills is a big questions for both the Vietnamese teachers and students. With the new policy by 2015, Hue Univeristy language policy makers really intervene the teaching and studying lives of lectures and students at this university.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My sincere and special thanks go to Ms. Dinh Thi Huong Giang- Department of Hospitality and Tourism, Hue University, Vietnam for her time, experience and participation in the open conversation with me on the field of language policy to fulfill my research purposes .

Bibliography

Blommaert, J. and Jie. D. (2010). Ethnographic fieldwork: a beginner’s guide. Bristol, Tonawanda & Ontario: Multilingual Matters(pp37- 52).

In their own opnion, the interview should not be so formal. It shuold be an open and friendly dialogue so that it will not make the interviewee nervous or stress. At the same  time, the confortable interview enviroment can help the researcher get more data than she/e exxpects. Moreover, the role of the inteviwer also plays an important part in the conversation. The interviewer should not cause an impact so that the interviewee will answer the questions in accordance with what the interviewer  prefers. It can be seen as a good guideline for beginer researcher in the field of interviewing.

Tupas, T. R. F. (2010). Which norms in everyday practice - and why? In A. Kirkpatrick (Ed.). The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes (pp. 567 – 579). New York and London: Routledge.


Tupas argues that "the appropriate norms are not always the rights ones, and... the rights ones are not always appropriate." According to him, the teachers or lecturers have to be sensitive or aware of their classroom practive so that they can choose the suitable norms for their  students. It is an art and requires the teachers' experience in the field of ELT especially in EFL. The teaching method which is successful or not much depends on how flexible the teacher is in his/er classroom.

Assignment 1

ENGLISH: VIETNAMESE 2^nd LANGUAGE BY 2012

This paper is an analysis of the “Decision on approval of the project: Teaching and learning foreign languages ​​in the national education system period 2008-2020 signed by the Vietnamese Deputy Prime Minister Nguyen Thien Nhan to find out: 1. the position of English in Vietnamese language policy; 2. the extent which the article reflects the official pronouncements of the Vietnamese Government about English; 3. the assumptions about English language which the article reflects.

Thinh(2006, p.1) asserts that “Vietnam did not have its own language for a long time. Foreign interventions and the subsequent use of foreign languages as the national or official language overwhelmed most of the nation’s 4000-year history.” On September 2, 1945 the former president Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of Vietnam, Vietnamese became the official and national language. It became the official language in April 1975, when the whole country was quite liberated. And once again the Education Law (2005: Article 7) reassures that “Vietnamese is the official language to be used in schools and other educational institutions.” The history of Vietnam reveals that this country was divided into two parts: the communist North and the capitalist South during the two resistant wars from 1954 to 1975. It leads to the difference on foreign language policy between the two parts. Russian and Chinese were promoted by Government in the North while English and French were focused as the main foreign languages in the South. Russian became the dominant foreign language in the whole country after the national reunification in 1975. This policy caused limited in communication and cooperation with the rest of the world. English, however, got its reemergence in 1986 since the Vietnam’s open-door policy-“doi moi”(Thinh. 2006, p.1). English becomes the compulsory and number one foreign language in Vietnam. French, Chinese, Korean, Russian can be the second foreign language since the project “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education System, Period 2008-2020” in 2008.(1)
Thinh (2006: 1) also reveals that English has become the broader communication and cooperation language in Vietnam since the Government’s open-door policy (Doi Moi) in 1986. In other words, English has taken its role as the main foreign language taught and used in Vietnam for 26 years. However, English was not a compulsory foreign language and was taught only to students from grade 6 to grade 12 for only seven years of general education. Under the decision signed by the deputy Prime Minister Nhan in 2008, English has become the first compulsory foreign language  for students from elementary level (grade 3) to high school level (grade 12) since the school year 2010- 2011 (1). More than that, in this article the Government also requires that most of graduates of colleges and universities must have English proficiency well enough for independent use, confidence in communication and working in the integration, multi-cultural environment with variety of languages by the year 2020. Besides, the young generations have to know how to make the foreign languages becomes their strength to serve the Vietnamese industrialization and modernization. (Nhan. 2008: 1) It can be inferred that English is specially paid attention in the globalization national education system by the Vietnamese Government in nowadays globalization. This challenge and great project in the Vietnamese history has been carried out by the 10-year program of English teaching for general education from grade 3 which was implemented around 20% in the whole country in the academic year 2010 – 2011. This rate will reach 70% in the school year 2015- 2016 and 100% in 2018-2019.

Implementing the “Enhanced English teaching programs” to improve English proficiency in professional education of 10% vocational students in the 2010-2011, 60% in 2015-2016 and 100 % in school year 2019 - 2020; Carrying out the “Advanced English teaching programs” at universities for 10% of college students and universities in the school year 2010 – 2011, reaching 60% by the year 2015 to 2016 and achieving 100% in 2019-2020;
Renewing the English teaching and learning method ​​in regular education programs in a way that its content is appropriate with educational and training levels.  It will contribute to the fostering and improving English competence in human resources, staff, and officials. At the same time it will help diverse the learning styles to meet learner needs.

Striving to get 5% of officials and public staffs in state agencies having their English proficiency at level 3 or higher in 2015 and reaching 30% in 2020. (Nhan. 2008: 1-5)

Based on the crucial objectives mentioned above, it can be seen that English has been the officially compulsory and first foreign language in Vietnam since 2009 for grade 3 students. Other languages as French, Russian and Chinese are encouraged to be taken as second foreign languages. It is Nunan (2002) who is quite reasonable when he argues that English globalization considerably impacts on Vietnamese language policy and practice. He has some collected data to prove that English is the key for success in both studying and working in Vietnam nowadays. (p.17) By this way, English will soon become the Lingua Franca in Vietnam.

In shorts, this article can be seen as an official declaration of Vietnamese government about the current foreign language policy of this country. If this project is successfully implemented 80%, English will be the Vietnamese second language by the year 2020.

Note:
(1): The project “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education System, Period 2008-2020”: http://jpf.org.vn/LinkClick.aspx? fileticket=niaDqNqomT4%3D&tabid=334

Bibliography

Nhan, Nguyen Thien (2008). Decision on approval of the project: Teaching and learning foreign languages ​​in the national education system period 2008-2020 (pp.1-7) http://vanban.moet.gov.vn/?page=1.15&script=viewdoc&view=708&opt=brpage

Nunan, David (2002). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies and practices in the Asia-Pacific region (pp.1-25). TESOL QUARTERLY Vol. 37, No. 4, Winter 2003.

This paper shows the results of a study of the position of English in some countries’ curriculum in the Asia Pacific as Mainland China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. It reveals that the globalization of English considerably impacts on is having policies and practices in the countries investigated.

Thịnh, Đỗ Huy (2006). The Role of English in Vietnam’s Foreign Language Policy. 19th Annual EA Education Conference 2006. www.englishaustralia.com.au/ ea_conference2006 /proceedings/ index.html

In this conference article, Thinh(2006) has a research to trace back the origin of Vietnamese language throughout the 4000-year Vietnamese history. He offers the data about Vietnamese foreign language policies in many certain periods of Vietnam like the French colony, American colony, Vietnam’s reunion in 1975 to the open-door policy in 1986 and lastly from 1986 to 2006. He points out the role of foreign languages especially English in Vietnam. He also clarifies the impact of the globalization of English in Vietnamese’s lives in the last few years.

Reflection of Week 2

LANGUAGE – AN ICON OR IDENTITY
OF A COUNTRY

I highly agree that linguistic landscape is related to the display of texts and images in public places. Why there is a monolingual policy in official signs in Vietnam except for some special occasions is a big question for me. At first, I thought it is because the Vietnamese political policy but later on I realize that language can function as an icon or an identity of a country. (Taylor-Leech. 2012: 16) Moreover, in the article: “The role of English in Vietnam’s foreign language policy: a brief history” by Thinh (2006: 1) I realize that Vietnam did not have its own language in a very long period. The foreign languages used to be used as the national or official language through the 4000-year history of the country. Vietnamese language has been the official language of Vietnam since September, 2^nd 1945 when president Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of Vietnam. I feel proud of my country because we now have our own system of language as a medium of instruction and as a way of communication. The time which we had to use a borrowed language to express ourselves passed away.

This national and official language can help shape the identity for Vietnam. Based on the writing in this language, people around the world can recognize the existence of this country-Vietnam. In other words Vietnamese is the symbol of national pride in this newly independent Vietnam. I think all of these reasons constitute to the answer of my very first question above.

Furthermore, in nowadays global village, the use of English in official signs in Vietnam as in the case of 2012 Hue Festival can be considered as an indication of the social development of the country. It will help the local people who are even at low literacy will be familiar with this foreign language. I feel that it is quite reasonable when the Vietnamese government has an overall objective of fully innovation for teaching and learning of foreign languages ​​in the national education system, as well as launching a new foreign language teaching and learning at all educational levels from 2008 to 2020.

In my own opinion, the spread of English language in Vietnam shows that this country has reached to the status of developed, globalization, international presence and modernity.

                         WORK CITED

Thịnh, Đỗ Huy (2006). The Role of English in Vietnam’s Foreign Language Policy. 19th Annual EA Education Conference 2006. www.englishaustralia.com.au/ ea_conference2006 /proceedings/ index.html

Taylor-Leech, K.J. (2012). Language choice as an index of identity: linguistic landscape in Dili, Timor-Leste. International Journal of Multilingualism 9 (1): 15 – 34.

Reflection of Week 3

WHICH NORM SHOULD A VIETNMESE LECTURER OF ENGLISH FOLLOW?

            When I first became a lecturer of English at Hue University in 1996, this question has embedded me. It has been years in my teaching life but I am still examining to look for the answer for this big question.

In the world of Englishes as Kachu’s analysis, Vietnam is in the expanding circle which makes many barriers for the lecturers of English because we do not know which norm to follow: American English (AE) or British English (BE). This leads to the problem that my students also confuse in their English usage and studying. For the language policy, our university does not have any clear instructions that the teachers can follow. Some thus use AE while others implement BE in their classroom. And there is still controversial debate among them for choosing the appropriate norm for the Vietnamese students studying English as EFL. The lecturers are not empowered to choose the appropriate norm for themselves. In other words, we do not have a Standard English to follow in our language teaching.

            From my perspective of a Vietnamese lecturer of English, teaching American English or British English does not matter. The matter is that it has to be correct in terms of grammar. Even until now, I still can’t answer the question that American English or British English is better for Vietnamese students or learners. It has to be dependent on the purpose and context in which the language users could decide which norm they should follow. They, for instance, want to work for an American Company; they had better use AE when taking to the US interviewer. On the contrary, if an applicant wants to apply for his/er Master degree in Oxford University, s/he should use BE for a little bit easier to be accepted to the university.

Assignment 2

2012- HUE FESTIVAL LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE’S ANALYSIS

 

          

 Welcome to Hue City, Vietnam!
Hue City is nowadays also called the Festival and Royal City of Vietnam. I returned to Hue at the end of March, 2012 when this whole city was eager to prepare for the Festival from April 7 to 15. A lot of billboards were hanging along the streets. Among them, the banner above catches much of my attention because of its significantly informing and greeting. It tells the audience that 2012 is the National Tourism Year in the Northern Central Coastal Area- Hue City “Chào mừng năm du lịch quốc gia duyên hải Bắc trung bộ-Huế 2012”. I however find out that the conversion from Vietnamese to English has the preposition “in” missing. It might be just a word by word translation. Another assumption is that the translator does not use Standard English or s/he might not be a teacher of English. Besides, I experience that English preposition is used to be omitted in advertisements in Vietnam for text shortening. Another possible reason to accounts for this problem is that there is no preposition in the above Vietnamese text, the translator therefore might forget to use a preposition in the conversion.

This linguistic landscape is not just information announced; meantime it is also a greeting to all of the visitors coming to Hue this season. Much more than that, this sign can be seen as congratulation to Hue people because among 64 provinces and cities of Vietnam, only Hue City is chosen to celebrate the 2012 Festival. It is no doubt that there are a great number of tourists will come to Hue City in 2012 due to its destination of Vietnam. Based on these reasons, it can be inferred that the target audience of this banner are Hue local people, Vietnamese and foreigner visitors.

As Taylor-Leech (2012) states, to understand a sign or a billboard, we need to recognize the social and cultural context in which it is placed (p.15). Vietnamese people have to struggle hard to be free from the two colonies of French and American for over one hundred years. And Vietnamese language can be officially in use in the whole country since the independence in 1975. It is the reason why the Vietnamese people prefer to use Vietnamese language in public space. In terms of politics, the Government also requires using this language in official signs to indicate that Vietnam is an independent country. It thus really makes me happy when seeing English language can be used in public space in my city where Vietnamese language is highly and officially appreciated. The bilingualism in this poster can be seen as the link to “progress and globalization.” (Rosendal. 2009. p. 36) The fact that English language, which is put in a lower position and in smaller size, does not mean that Vietnamese people do not respect it but as  Taylor-Leech( 2012) argues the language can function as “an icon of nationalism.” (p. 16) Vietnamese language is, therefore written in larger size and in red color as it is the emphasis on the national and official language. In other words, this language is the icon of Vietnam or the country’s pride.  For me, the Vietnamese language is put in a large size so that it can catch attention of majority of the target audience: Hue people and local visitors. From the perspective of an English language researcher, I think English is very powerful around the world. When it comes to Vietnam especially in Hue city, it immediately becomes a less powerful one or a second language in this place. It cannot be used in the first place here due to the problem that not all Vietnamese can understand English. In terms of color, red refers to victory or success. It thus can be interpreted that it is a wish to have a very successful national tourism year of 2012 for Hue in specific and for Vietnam in general.

The Festival sign also makes me happy about my city due to the reality that English becomes not only a familiar language to the local people but a Lingual Franca to foreigners as well. With these kinds of billboards, I do not think the local people become good at English or they know how to communicate in English after this occasion but they will at least have a basic impression on how the English language looks like. More than that, some of them might know the equivalent conversion of the text above in English. So the spread of English in linguistics landscape in Hue can be indexed as the arrival of globalization and modernity (Taylor-Leech, 2012: 28). To welcome a lot of visitors, from a very ancient, royal, tradition city, the city has to be rebuilt and restored in ways which can comfort and adapt the new challenges and environment, it is therefore becomes modern. The foreign languages which are used in the official signs also contributes to the modernity and makes the city becomes high culture. And I think Hue becomes familiar to many domestic and abroad visitors by the chances of Festivals. All of these reasons contribute to its factor of globalization of the city mentioned above.

On the right side of the poster, the audience can see the term VIETINBANK which means Vietnam Industrial Bank and its diamond symbol. The fact that VIETINBANK sponsored ten billion Vietnam Dongs for this Festival made it achieve the title “2012 Hue festival Diamond sponsor” which is stated at the lower right corner of the billboard in Vietnamese: “Nhà Tài Trợ Kim Cương-Huế 2012.” Bank is an English word which is pronounced [bænk] but it is vietnamized into bank [băng] reffering to places where monetary transactions can be done. It is where globalizationa and locality is intwerwined or intersected because a foreign word  becomes a “Vietnamese” term which is accepted by every Vietnamese person who even doesnot know how to speak English.

The blue-color background can be symbolized as peace in this city. It is peaceful in the sense of climate, environment, human nature and politics. During the festival, it was not so cold or too hot with some slightly rain which creates a mild temperature for tourists going around the city. The clean, clear and green urban contributes to the perfect tourism environment for domestic and international visitors to enjoy their vacation here. And Vietnam is a communist country so the political system is stable and my country is famous in South East Asia for its politic security. On the left side of the poster, its background is the image of the Imperial Palace where Nguyen Kings and Emperors used to stay before 1945. This is one of the destinations of Hue Festival with a lot of performances implementing there. The palace is not only famous for its royal life but for its architecture as well. Furthermore, it is the destination of many tourists when visiting Hue City because they can take their pictures in the King, Queen, Prince and Princess ’ costumes sitting in the golden throne. So visitors may feel excited and interested when having a tour to this historical place.

Besides, the white round circle with the three-store house image appears over the Imperial Palace background at the left side of the poster is the logo of the national tourism 2012 in Hue city.  The purple S shape of the logo is the shape of Vietnam inwhich Hue is in the middle coast area.  Purple is the special color of Hue female in the long tradition dress called “ao dai”. In oder words, they usually wear the purple “ao dai” in some specially cases as festivals. This traditional color simbolizes for faithfullness according the view point of Hue local people.

Have you ever wondered why this logo is placed on the left side of this festival  linguistic landscape  whereas the sponsor’s name is set on the lower right side corner? From the viewpoint of a Vietnamese target audience, I think we start to read from the left to the right, so the left is considered as the starting point and the right is the ending point. In other words, the nation tourism year festival is celebrated in Hue which is placed on the left is able to be successfull or to come to the end-“the right side” successfully or not is dependent so much on the sponsor’s fund. This can be seen as one of the possible reasons accounted for their positions in this above festival linguistic landscape.

In short, all of the analysis mentioned above can anchor me to clarify the purpose of this official sign, to identify its target audience, to explore the semiotic resources used and to unveil the reflection of local realities.

Bibliography

Taylor-Leech, K.J. (2012). Language choice as an index of identity: linguistic landscape in Dili, Timor-Leste. International Journal of Multilingualism 9 (1): 15 – 34.

In this research, Taylor-Leech tries to explore how the language choice reflects social and national identity in the linguistic landscape of Dili, Timor-Leste. The author tries to explore the concepts of iconicity, indexicality and visual grammar of official and non-official public signage in this city. More than that, he studies further on the language use in public space to find out the implications on language policy in social marketing and mobilization.

Tove Rosendal (2009). Linguistic markets in Rwanda: Language use in advertisements and on signs. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 30, 1, 19-39.

In this article, Rosendal examines the changes in mass communication advertisements, especially newspaper, linguistic landscape as shop signs and billboards in Kigali and Butare. The essential assumption of this research is that there is a competition of language use in linguistic market which affects Rwanda and the other non-African official languages. The researcher suggests that there should be more researches on the field to set the foundation for the roles and usages of the three official languages of Rwanda.

Reflection of Week 1

                  SOME THOUGHT ON INTELLIGIBILITY

 I feel interested in exploring Speech and language by Hymes (1996) especially his language dimensions known as diversity, medium, structure and function. Each dimension has its own vantages to the researchers. Diversity of language has something to do with the origin as well as development process of that language while medium relates to utterance and written form of a language. Grammatical points play a key role in the sustainable development of a language system where language cannot be analyzed with context-free.  Among them, language diversity catches much of my attention during this reading. The diversity of a language does not depend on the present or seeable things but relates to the origin or the past one. And I highly agree with Hyme(1996)  that the core issue of language diversity is communication, especially intelligibility. Communication will be broken down if mutual understanding cannot be reached. In other words, without intelligibility, communication act is not successful at any places.

I highly agree with Mc Kay (2002)  Intelligibility, according to is a “complex issue” which involving tripartite matters of “intelligibility (recognizing an expression), comprehensibility (knowing the meaning of the expression), and interpretability (knowing what the expression signifies in a particular socio-cultural context)”. For example, if a Vietnamese learner can realize that the term “sing” is an English word not a Vietnamese word, s/he is intelligible. Moreover, if s/he is good at vocabulary is enough to know the meaning of this term, it is s/he who is comprehensible. And above all, if s/he understands the utterance “You sing beautifully.” is a comment on her/is nice, gentle, sweet voice, it means s/he is able to interpret his foreign language.

In my concern, intelligibility is also the mutual understanding between and among participants in the communication process. For instance, a young guy who wants to show his heart to the girl friend is too shy to say “I love you”, he just gives her a rose and says “I like you”. His girl friend, however can  of interlocutors, rather than focus on the features of an idealized native speaker variety”. Thus,  intelligibility is interactional or mutual understanding between speaker and his/er audience or the participants should interact to reach to mutual understanding in their communication process.

In short, from my own thinking, intelligibility plays a key role in communication act in specific, in the diversity of a language in general.

WORK CITED

Hymes, D. (1996). Speech and language: on the origins and foundations of inequality among speakers. In Ethnography, Linguistics and Narrative Inequality: Toward an Understanding of Voice (pp. 25 – 62). London: Taylor and Francis.

Mc kay. (2002). Standards for English as an International Language. Teaching English as         International Language. Oxford University Press

Smith, L., & Nelson, C. (1985). International intelligibility of English: Directions and resources. World Englishes, 4, 333–342.